孔子：
Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, arguments continue over whether it is a religion. Confucianism lacks an afterlife, any deities, and is unconcerned with spiritual matters such as the nature of the soul.
Confucius' principles gained wide acceptance primarily because of their basis in common Chinese opinion. He championed strong familial loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives, and the family as a basis for an ideal government. He expressed the well-known principle, "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself" (similar to the Golden Rule). He also looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly the politicians, to model themselves on earlier examples. "What the superior man seeks is in himself. What the mean man seeks is in others"
[edit] Ethics
The Confucian theory of ethics is based on three important concepts:
While Confucius grew up, (礼 [礼]) Lǐ referred to the three aspects of life: sacrificing to the gods, social and political institutions, and daily behavior. It was believed that lǐ originated from the heavens. Confucius argued that it flowed not from heaven but from humanity. He redefined lǐ to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society. Lǐ, to Confucius, became every action by a person aiming to meet his surface desires. These can be either good or bad. Generally, attempts to obtain short term pleasure are bad while those, which in the long term try to make one's life better, are generally good. These concepts are about doing the proper thing at the proper time.
To Confucius, yì (义 [义]) was the origin of Lǐ. Yì can best be translated as righteousness. While doing things because of Lǐ, one's own self-interest was not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one bases one's life upon following yì. This means that rather than pursuing one's own selfish interests, one should do what is right and moral. It is doing the right thing for the right reason. Yì is based upon reciprocity. An example of living by yì is how one must mourn one's father and mother for three years after their death. Since they took care of the child for the first three years of one's life, one must reciprocate by living in mourning for three years.
Just as Lǐ flows out of yì, so yì flows out of rén (仁). Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness." Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To live by rén was even better than living by the rules of yì. To live by rén one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: he argued that one must always treat others just as one would want others to treat you. Virtue under Confucius is based upon harmony with other people.
He applied an early version of the Golden Rule:
"What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognises as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others." (Confucius and Confucianism, Richard Wilhelm)
http://www.blog.163.com/dominic0626/
Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, arguments continue over whether it is a religion. Confucianism lacks an afterlife, any deities, and is unconcerned with spiritual matters such as the nature of the soul.
Confucius' principles gained wide acceptance primarily because of their basis in common Chinese opinion. He championed strong familial loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives, and the family as a basis for an ideal government. He expressed the well-known principle, "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself" (similar to the Golden Rule). He also looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly the politicians, to model themselves on earlier examples. "What the superior man seeks is in himself. What the mean man seeks is in others"
[edit] Ethics
The Confucian theory of ethics is based on three important concepts:
While Confucius grew up, (礼 [礼]) Lǐ referred to the three aspects of life: sacrificing to the gods, social and political institutions, and daily behavior. It was believed that lǐ originated from the heavens. Confucius argued that it flowed not from heaven but from humanity. He redefined lǐ to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society. Lǐ, to Confucius, became every action by a person aiming to meet his surface desires. These can be either good or bad. Generally, attempts to obtain short term pleasure are bad while those, which in the long term try to make one's life better, are generally good. These concepts are about doing the proper thing at the proper time.
To Confucius, yì (义 [义]) was the origin of Lǐ. Yì can best be translated as righteousness. While doing things because of Lǐ, one's own self-interest was not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one bases one's life upon following yì. This means that rather than pursuing one's own selfish interests, one should do what is right and moral. It is doing the right thing for the right reason. Yì is based upon reciprocity. An example of living by yì is how one must mourn one's father and mother for three years after their death. Since they took care of the child for the first three years of one's life, one must reciprocate by living in mourning for three years.
Just as Lǐ flows out of yì, so yì flows out of rén (仁). Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness." Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To live by rén was even better than living by the rules of yì. To live by rén one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: he argued that one must always treat others just as one would want others to treat you. Virtue under Confucius is based upon harmony with other people.
He applied an early version of the Golden Rule:
"What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognises as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others." (Confucius and Confucianism, Richard Wilhelm)
http://www.blog.163.com/dominic0626/
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第1个回答 2007-06-17
Sima Qian (司马迁）
The Han emperor, WuDi, re-established the importance of learning and encouraged the production of new works. As a result, ancient works which had arrived the book burning of the first emperor began to re-appear. Sima Qian took on the task of writing a complete history of China.
He became involved in an incident that almost cost his life. he dared to criticize the emperor. The judges sentenced him to death, this sentence was reduced to castration.
He was determined to continue his great work. By the end of his life Sima Qian had written 130 chapters of his work "Shi Ji"(Records of the historian) recording the history of China's first three dynasties.
累死我也~我可是一字一字的打上去的。本回答被提问者采纳
The Han emperor, WuDi, re-established the importance of learning and encouraged the production of new works. As a result, ancient works which had arrived the book burning of the first emperor began to re-appear. Sima Qian took on the task of writing a complete history of China.
He became involved in an incident that almost cost his life. he dared to criticize the emperor. The judges sentenced him to death, this sentence was reduced to castration.
He was determined to continue his great work. By the end of his life Sima Qian had written 130 chapters of his work "Shi Ji"(Records of the historian) recording the history of China's first three dynasties.
累死我也~我可是一字一字的打上去的。本回答被提问者采纳
第2个回答 2007-06-17
孔子的，比较简单，希望对您有帮助！ ：）
Confucius (551-479 BCE), according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live his live and interact with others, and the forms of society and government in which he should participate. Fung Yu-lan, one of the great 20th century authorities on the history of Chinese thought, compares Confucius' influence in Chinese history with that of Socrates in the West.
Confucius (551-479 BCE), according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live his live and interact with others, and the forms of society and government in which he should participate. Fung Yu-lan, one of the great 20th century authorities on the history of Chinese thought, compares Confucius' influence in Chinese history with that of Socrates in the West.
第3个回答 2007-06-17
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